Ciara Wolfe

In recent years, it seems like the politics we see in the news are almost always negative. There has not been a lot of positivity in politics recently, and this is largely due to not only the status of the country right now, but also how the news is being framed. The concept of negativity in political news has resulted in studies having a wide variety of results and conclusions about its significance. Some studies believe that confrontational news is important and can encourage healthy skepticism, whereas others believe that negativity in political news can lead to politicians and institutions being deemed untrustworthy (Lengauer, et al., 2011, p.180).

Understanding Negative Media: How is This Influencing Opinion?

Negative news seems to be overshadowing positive news in the last few years. There are certain well-known phrases such as “No news is good news” and “If it bleeds, it leads” that act as proof that negativity has dominated news for a while (Soroka, McAdams, 2012, p. 1). Stories have the tendency to focus on what’s wrong in the world, and not what is right, especially in politics. There has been an intensification in the focus on negative news throughout recent decades and scholars are looking for a reason why (Lengauer, et al., 2011, p. 181). 

• “ …it is argued that increased levels of education among journalists,… a general shift toward post-materialist attitudes,… and key events like Watergate, Vietnam and the 1968 protest movements contributed to a change in journalists’ worldviews where negativity shifted from a mere ‘news value’ to an over-arching ‘news ideology’” (Lengauer, et al., 2011, p.181).

Basically, the increase of negative news can be attributed to the evolution of journalists education and what has happened in the world. When the public is only seeing negative headlines about politics, it becomes exhausting and creates disengagement and can even lead media consumers to not trust the politicians, news outlets and jorunalists. 

The Similarity of Bias: How Both Concepts Affect Public Perception

Bias is a term that regularly gets confused with negativity. Bias isn’t just showing the negativity in news, it is the manipulation and certain rhetoric that journalists or news outlets use that favor one side ( de Arruda, et al., 2020, p. 176). If a news outlet is consistently praising one candidate in the presidential election and scrutinizing the other, that is an example of bias. The difference between bias and negativity is that negativity can make everyone look bad. No one specifically has to be the target in a negative story, it can be everyone involved whether its covering a scandal or just pessimism towards the government. It doesn’t always have to have a specific target.

Understanding the Difference: The Best Way to Consume News

Understanding the difference between bias and negativity can make us better news consumers. Negative news is common and it is everywhere. It can make the state of the world, country and politics feel exhausting. That being said, it is still important to consume and understand this news because it keeps us informed and can create awareness. We need to stay aware of bias because it can quietly shape our opinions without us noticing. It is important for us to recognize when a news story, journalist or outlet is biased so we know the story may not be 100% accurate. Being able to recognize the use of both makes us informed news consumers and allows us to consume media without being misled.

Keywords:

Bias, negativity, influence/influencing, public perception

References:

Arruda, Gabriel De, et al. “Analysing Bias in Political News.” JUCS – Journal of Universal Computer Science, vol. 26, no. 2, 28 Feb. 2020, pp. 173–199, lib.jucs.org/article/23996/, https://doi.org/10.3897/jucs.2020.011.

Lengauer, Günther, et al. “Negativity in Political News: A Review of Concepts, Operationalizations and Key Findings.” Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism, vol. 13, no. 2, 22 Nov. 2011, pp. 179–202, https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884911427800.

Soroka, Stuart N., and Stephen McAdams. “News, Politics, and Negativity.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2012, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2075941.

Presenting a bunch of facts in a press release does not make it very memorable for the reader. It is important for PR professionals to be able to tell a story through their message. Creating an emotional response is one of the best ways for a message to stick. The amount of content we see in a day can be overwhelming to think about, and it’s important for a message or campaign to truly stand out in the midst of all the information that we consume on a daily basis.

The Strategy of a Story: Making Memorable Messaging

Humans have used the art of storytelling throughout history. From the ancient Greeks and Romans, all the way to us, storytelling has been crucial to how humans perceive and share information (Kent, 2015, p. 481). The compelling nature of storytelling makes it effective to society as a whole. It can create shared experiences and create an emotional response (Kent, 2015, p. 481). The idea of storytelling is not a new concept, nor does it have a lack of research.

The article “The power of storytelling in public relations: Introducing the 20 master plots” states that, “ A Google phrase search for ‘storytelling and ‘public relations’” returns 1.5 million results” (Kent, 2015, p. 481).

Storytelling can be utilized in many different contexts to help information or news resonate with various audiences. For example, an article by Minh Tung Tran elaborates on how storytelling can be used to draw attention to and engage audiences in incidents that are related to the climate and environment (Tran, 2025, p. 1). Taking advantage of how influential good storytelling can be should not only be essential to PR professionals, but to other fields that want awareness for specific issues as well.

The Rhetoric and Storytelling Combo: The Trick to Make a Message Stick

Humans have always found a way to communicate with each other. The concepts of rhetoric and storytelling go hand-in-hand. The concept of rhetoric is a well-established technique which also comes from Ancient Greek and Roman traditions (Indraccolo, 2014, p. 333) .Rhetoric is essential for communication and forming the necessary relationships required for society and community (Shin, Heath, 2020, p.115). These concepts used correctly, and together, can create effective PR messaging that sticks and stands out.

Craft a Lasting Message

There is no shortage of professionals in the field of public relations. This means that PR professionals need to stand out and impress organizations and clients with their ability to utilize everyday storytelling and professional rhetoric (Kantola, 2016). People are going to remember the stories and messages they see where they feel an emotional connection, not something with no depth. Understanding how to make a narrative work in your favor from storytelling is a non-negotiable for setting a PR professional apart from the rest.

Keywords:

Storytelling, rhetoric, strategy, messaging

Resources:

Indraccolo, L. (2014). What is “rhetoric” anyway? Briared in words in Early China. Asiatische Studien – Études Asiatiques, 68(1), 331–341. https://doi.org/10.1515/asia-2014-0019

Kantola, A. (2016). Cleaning rotten politics, selling exclusive liaisons: Public relations consultants as storytelling professionals between markets and politics. Public Relations Inquiry, 5(1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/2046147×15625713

Kent, M. L. (2015). The Power of Storytelling in Public relations: Introducing the 20 Master Plots. Public Relations Review, 41(4), 480–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2015.05.011

Shin, J-H., & Heath, R. L. (2020, December 22). Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies.

Tran, M. T. (2025). Harnessing the power of storytelling in public Relations: Mobilizing public action against climate change. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 12, 101825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101825

In today’s world, it is almost impossible to go an entire day, or even half a day, without using some sort of technology. That might sound sad but it is our harsh reality. Interactivity and interactive features are more relevant than ever. 

An article titled “Effects of Web Interactivity: A Meta-Analysis” states “ The use of interactive features on website interfaces has significantly expanded the reach and strength of computer-mediated messages. A message on an interactive website can be drastically different from a print message…” (Yang, Shen, 2017).

Being able to understand the impact of interactivity can help PR professionals understand why some media is easier to connect with which in turn allows the professionals to create media that has this effect. 

What is Interactivity? Technology + Human Communication

Interactivity is a concept that is more relevant in the newer generations due to technological advancements that have made the internet and technology in general more accessible. Interactivity can be rooted in a mediums ability to create interactions and generate conversation or even engagement (Kiousis, 2002, p. 356). The concept of interactivity is also studied in a number of different contexts. For example, a study in an article titled “Brand value Co-creation in social commerce: The role of interactivity, social support, and relationship quality” puts a focus on how interactivity is an important aspect of social commerce (Tajvidi et al., 2017, p.3). This specific study investigates how consumers engage in social shopping and then share information with eachother to create a sort of social networking environment (Tajvidi et al., 2017, p. 3). Outside of that context, a more relevant example that would resonate with the current generation would be playing a video game with other players or interacting with comments on different social media platforms.

Engagement and Interactivity: Similar, but Different

 Although similar, interactivity and engagement are not the same. They both have to do with consumers of media interacting and engaging with media in a significant way. There is a distinction between the two. Engagement puts more of a focus on the involvement a person feels with a certain concept. Whether that is social media, school or work, engagement is more about the connection you feel to something. Engagement can be anything from your willingness to do well in school to wanting to make a favorable impression at work (Hollebeek, 2011,p. 557). An example to understand engagement easily would be thinking about how you can watch your favorite movie over and over again but you don’t necessarily interact with it. Interactivity is more of a two-way street. Communication between the audience and the message can go back and forth instead of only observing (Kiousis, 2002, p. 359). While the concepts both deal with involvement, interactivity is about the potential for communication and engagement is about the feelings and perception a person has with a message.

The Power of Interactivity

Interactivity truly is how technology and humans connect. While similar to engagement, interactivity focuses more on the exchanges we have with media. PR professionals being able to use interactivity to their advantage can be a huge tool and a huge factor that determines whether a not a message is successful or not.

Keywords:

Interactivity, engagement, technology, communication

References:

Hollebeek, L. (2011). Exploring customer brand engagement: definition and themes. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 19(7), 555–573. https://doi.org/10.1080/0965254x.2011.599493

Kiousis, S. (2002). Interactivity: a concept explication. New Media & Society, 4(3), 355–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/146144480200400303

Tajvidi, M., Wang, Y., Hajli, N., & Love, P. E. D. (2017). Brand value Co-creation in social commerce: The role of interactivity, social support, and relationship quality. Computers in Human Behavior, 115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.006

Yang, F., & Shen, F. (2017). Effects of Web Interactivity: A Meta-Analysis. Communication Research, 45(5), 635–658. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217700748

A lot of people view public relations as a never ending cycle of cleaning up messes. In reality, a lot of good PR is about the art of predicting instead of reacting. Reacting efficiently to a crisis is still essential, but the act of predicting is essential too.  This is where issues management comes into play. Issues management identifies emerging trends and potential issues that can possibly affect an organization in the future. Being able to identify these factors and create organizational responses in advance is hugely successful for a lot of companies (Gaunt, Ollenburger, 1995, p. 201).  Strategy is more important than panic. Some of the best PR is the PR that happens behind the scenes.

What is Issues Management, Because it is Not Crisis Management!

Issues management is synonymous with crisis management. There is an important distinction between the two. Issues management is the work that goes into preventing the crisis in the first place and identifying what may present itself as a problem, and crisis management is the work that goes into the actual management of the crisis. Crisis management is post-crisis and issues management is pre-crisis (Gaunt, Ollenburger, 1995, p. 202).  The term “issues management” itself was created by Howard Chase and Barrie Jones in 1977. It was created after businesses were facing constant backlash from the public because they weren’t becoming aware of problems until it was much too late. 

They stated that their crisis model combined “ a management philosophy with an ongoing systems process to help executives identify, analyze and manage public policy issues in a populist society experiencing discontinuous change” (Ramsey, 1993, p. 262). 

Chase created an Issue Management Process Model to identify, protect and have a better control on external factors to maintain performance of the corporate system (Aronczyk, 2018, p. 837). Once again, the purpose of the model was to prevent a crisis before it even started. Today’s media cycle is fast and constant which requires PR professionals and teams to stay on top of policy changes, public opinion and trends.

Contingency Theory + Issues Management = The Cheat Code for Successful PR Professionals

Even though a lot of the research and models developed for this concept came over 20 years ago, this is still an extremely relevant topic of conversation. Issues management is extra important in today’s climate because of the use of social media and how quick news can spread in the blink of an eye. Issues management plays with contingency theory pretty closely in terms of how PR professionals look at a crisis. Contingency theory is the practice of choosing what is best for the company while also making sure to follow strategies that rely on what the specific situation is (Shin, Heath, 2020, p. 83). Companies that use contingency theory and issues management correctly enable themselves to formulate the best preventative plans for multiple different versions of crises.

Don’t Wait Until it’s Too Late

Issues management is an essential, strategic tool that is practiced to save organizations from potential crises. PR professionals need to know that they can’t wait for the crisis to come to them, they have to always take the lead and have the upper hand on a potential crisis. PR is a lot deeper than just messaging.  Issues management is not something that is optional for a company. It is absolutely essential so that crises can turn into opportunities.

Keywords:

Issues management, crisis management, contingency theory, public relations professionals

References

Aronczyk, M. (2018). Public Relations, Issue Management, and the Transformation of American Environmentalism, 1948–1992. Enterprise & Society, 19(4), 836–863. https://doi.org/10.1017/eso.2017.69

Gaunt, P., & Ollenburger, J. (1995). Issues management revisited: A tool that deserves another look. Public Relations Review, 21(3), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/0363-8111(95)90021-7

Ramsey, S. A. (1993). Issues management and the use of technologies in public relations. Public Relations Review, 19(3), 261–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/0363-8111(93)90046-f

Shin, J-H., Heath & R.L. (2020, December 22). Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies.

What is news literacy? News literacy goes far beyond just being able to sniff out fake news. It is a concept that has been studied for many years and continues to develop due to social media and technology constantly evolving.

The authors of the article “Defining and Conceptualizing News Literacy” state, “ we define news literacy as knowledge of the personal and social processes by which news is produced, distributed, and consumed, and skills that allow users some control over these processes” (Tully et al, 2021).

Simply put, news literacy is knowing how news is created, how it’s shared and how it’s processed by the audience, while also having the ability to use it yourself. This is where the 5 Cs of news literacy come in handy.

The 5 Cs of News Literacy: What Are They?

To help best define and understand news literacy, it is helpful to know the 5 Cs of news literacy.

• Context: Context is the behind-the-scenes factors that shape the news. This includes the social and economic environments, as well as laws in the place where the news is coming from (Tully et al, 2021).

• Creation: Creation is how the news is actually made. How was the news conceived and reported? This doesn’t just cover journalists; it also covers influencers, bloggers and AI generated news. What are the values of the person who created and obtained this news? This also includes the background and social views of however created this news (Tully et al, 2021).

• Content: Content is what sets apart this piece of news from other media content. What are the characteristics that make it news worthy? Understanding the importance of content and how it is different from other media is essential in defining news literacy. We want to look at if the sources of the news are credible and if the evidence included can be deemed reliable (Tully et al, 2021).

• Circultion: How did this news get to you? A person’s personal bias can determine how quickly  news reaches them, or even what kind of news reaches them. People identify with news that matches their personal values more than news that doesn’t, therefore people will seek a specific type of news out because they deem it more trustworthy. Your algorithm and social media can also play a part in what news is circulated to you (Tully et al, 2021). 

• Consumption: Consumption is the act of how we digest news. This includes what news we pay attention to and how we perceive it. Personal bias is huge here. Everything from political views to where you live can affect how credible we find news, how we interpret it, and if we even see it. It is important to be aware of these biases in order to educate ourselves and have well-rounded opinions on topics in the news, without judging too quick due to personal beliefs (Tully et al, 2021). 

Differentiating News Literacy and Media Literacy

News literacy and media literacy are similar, but not exactly the same. Where news literacy is focused on our digestion of news specifically (typically current events and politics), media literacy is more general. Media literacy is how we process all different kinds of media. Similar to news literacy, media literacy also shares the same ideolgy of being able to make your own informed decision about the media you have consumed. Whether that is a commercial, a movie or a social media advertisement, media literacy shares the common goal of individuals being able to question and appreciate what they are seeing (Jones-Jang et al, 2021). Both literacies put an emphasis on individuals being able to have the skills to interpret and assess the specific information being shared with us. 

Identifying Misinformation and Honing Your News Literacy Skills

While media literacy is important, news literacy is absolutely essential in this day and age. The younger generation is exhibiting a rising level of dependence on social media for news. That being said, news literacy levels are also increasing (Swart, 2023).  It’s important for anyone who consumes media to be news literate and understand the 5 C’s. This is crucial to having a society where everyone is able to make their own educated, informed opinions. No one wants to fall victim to fake news or the spread of misinformation, so it is up to us to understand exactly what to look for and even our own personal biases.

Keywords:

News literacy, misinformation, the 5 Cs of news literacy, media literacy

References:

Jones-Jang, S. M., Mortensen, T., & Liu, J. (2019). Does Media Literacy Help Identification of Fake News? Information Literacy Helps, but Other Literacies Don’t. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219869406

Swart, J. (2021). Tactics of news literacy: How young people access, evaluate, and engage with news on social media. New Media & Society, 25(3), 505–521. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211011447

Tully, M., Maksl, A., Ashley, S., Vraga, E. K., & Craft, S. (2021). Defining and conceptualizing news literacy. Journalism, 23(8), 146488492110058. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849211005888

The Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS) was created to dive deeper into the principles of the Situational Theory of Publics (STP). There are four main independent variables included in STOPS. They are: problem recognition, involvement recognition, constraint recognition, and reference criterion (Xuemei, et al, 2024). STOPS examines an individual’s situational motivation to acknowledge and tackle a problem. Organizations are able to communicate with their key publics better by understanding and utilizing STOPS.

The Importance of the Publics: Why is Strategic Communication So Essential?

STOPS views the publics differently from other theories. STOPS uses segmentation to analyze what situational factors were motivating people to act in favor of an organization or against them. It analyzes why people choose to be active in certain situations compared to others. If organizations have a grasp on understanding their publics from the perspective that STOPS provides, they can more accurately communicate and build relationships with the publics (Tam et al, 2022). A lot of James Grunig’s work that birthed excellence theory led to the development and understanding of the situational theory of problem solving.

The textbook “ Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies” states, “That research led him (Grunig) to consider how institutions and any public can work together (collaborate) to solve problems, including the factors that hinder and facilitate cooperation. Such challenges led conceptually to the situational theory of publics and eventually to the situational theory of problem solving” (Shin, Heath, 2020, p.57).

An organization can produce a carefully crafted message, but if they don’t understand how to get their publics involved with the information, then they won’t be able to build those authentic relationships between each other. STOPS has even been explored in a way that allows proper segmentation to solve crisis-related communication problems and work collaboratively with other theories (Chon, et al, 2023).

Public Relations + STOPS: It Starts On The Inside

It is easy for the internal dynamic of a public relations workplace to be overshadowed. The internal audience of an organization is equally as important as the outside. Employees serve as extremely powerful messengers and can guide how the public views an organization. STOPS explores the necessity of understanding stakeholders in a way that crafts the message to get a predicted reaction. It also can explain the “why” of how certain information and messages are created or chosen to be shared (Chon, et al, 2023). Employees have the power to be vital advocates for an organization by their carefully crafted messaging. A healthy environment for employees will almost always be reflected in their messaging and the work they do to represent the organization.

Ultimately, STOPS acts as a reminder that public relations is about more than just perception of the external publics. The people inside the organization are just as important, and their ability to think a few steps ahead is crucial.

Keywords:

Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS), Publics, Public Relations, Strategic Communication

References:

Chon, M.-G.,Tam, L., Lee, H. & Kim, J.-N. (2023). Situational theory of problem solving (STOPS): A foundational theory of publics and its behavioral nature in problem solving. In E. Sommerfeldt & C. Botan (Eds), Public relations theory III (pp. 58-76). Routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781003141396-6

Shin, J-H., & Heath, R. L. (2020, December 22). Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies.

Tam, L., Kim, J.-N. & Lee, H. (2022). The Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS): past, present and future. In D. Pompper, K. Place & C. K. Weaver (Eds.), Routledge companion to public relations (pp. 115-124). Routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781003131700-11

Xuemei, C., Binti Hashim, N., & Binti Kamarudin, S. (2024). Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS): A Foundational Theory of Publics and It’s Application in an Eastern Cultural Context. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 14(4). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v14-i4/21064

How many people would trust a news article if they knew it was written entirely by artificial intelligence? 5 years ago, that question may have sounded very dystopian, but today it has become our reality. AI can have many roles in media and journalism such as analytics, creative direction, or even writing entire articles (Thäsler-Kordonouri, Koliska, 2024,p. 2). AI is beginning to act as a journalist and that is where the concept of AI as an agent in journalism comes into play. There is a transition happening from AI being used as an aid to edit or fine-tune articles and information, it is being used to write the articles. The idea of AI as an agent in journalism is redefining the relationships between the public, news, and journalists.

Journalism Meets AI: Clarifying the Concept

 AI is meant to mimick the human mind, and is supposed to be capable of going beyond the natural boundaries of human intelligence (Owsley, 2022, p. 4). The human job of journalism is now being challenged by AI in certain aspects such as planning, writing articles, editing and more, but also utilized. 

In Chad Owsley’s concept explication of AI as an agent in journalism he states, “To best link the concepts Artificial Intelligence and Journalism, examining where they intersect may provide the most insightful pathway. AI and journalism intersect at the journalist. More specifically, they intersect at the journalist’s communication” (Owsley, 2022, p. 11). 

The idea of using AI as an agent is more than just viewing it as a tool or helpful resource. AI can now some what take credit for work. A news article can be written completely by AI instead of acting as a tool to point out grammatical errors or help come up with a catchy headline. The idea of AI existing almost as a coworker instead of a resource is where AI as an agent comes into play.

Automated Journalism Vs. AI as Agent

Automated journalism and AI as an agent are very similar. A lot of terms are viewed as synonymous to automated journalism such as machine-written news and robot journalism (Olsen, 2023, p.306). Automated journalism essentially takes data and numbers and turns it into a story. For example, taking sports scores and turning them into a templated story without human help (Owsley, 2022, p. 9-10). It can be viewed more as a sidekick or assistant, opposed to someone who would be leading the show. AI as an agent is more intense. This is when AI processes the information and acts as an actual journalist by doing the job a reporter would normally do. It is easy to confuse the two, which is why a concept explication for the terms is so important. Artificial intelligence is used in both cases to create a story but one is more numbers- focused than the other.

Where Does This Leave Us?

 AI can be an extremely helpful tool, but it isn’t the same as a human. AI as an agent can be efficient and helpful in some situations, but it will never have the same emotion and values that a human journalist will. News written by a human can come off more raw and real, whereas AI can sound exactly what it is: robotic. In this day and age where AI is constantly evolving and being used more frequently, it is hard to draw clear lines with its use. Both AI and humans can tell stories and process the information needed for those stories, but a human will have a different perspective to add. In the next few years I think we are going to see a lot of struggle to determine the ethics and use of AI in the workplace, especially journalism.

Keywords:

Automated Journalism, AI as Agent, Journalism, Artificial Intelligence (AI).

Resources:

Olsen, G. R. (2023). Enthusiasm and Alienation: How Implementing Automated Journalism Affects the Work Meaningfulness of Three Newsroom Groups. Journalism Practice, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2023.2190149

Owsley, C. S. (2022). Artificial Intelligence as Agent in Journalism: A Concept Explication. University of Nebraska at Omaha.

Thäsler-Kordonouri, S., & Koliska, M. (2025). Journalistic Agency and Power in the Era of Artificial Intelligence. Journalism Practice, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2025.2480238

We see messages every day and everywhere. We see them in the news, advertisements and social media. Unfortunately, a lot of these messages may not be as authentic as they are made out to be. Organized persuasive communication (also referred to as OPC), is designed to influence our behaviors and our thoughts. 

As defined by Vian Bakir and cowriters, “[OPC] refer(s) to all organized persuasion activities (including advertising and marketing, propaganda, public relations, organizational communication, information/influence campaigns, psychological operations, strategic communication and a whole host of other overlapping terms)” (Bakir et al. 2018, p. 312).

Understanding how certain tactics work is important in recognizing deception, incentives and coersion that are used to influence people without realizing they are being manipulated. Being able to sniff out these tactics and recognize when a message is manipulative is important as a society in our authentic decision making.

What Turns Persuasion Into Manipulation?

An article written by Andrew Chadwick and James Stanyer on disinformation, misinformation, and misperceptions quotes philosopher Don Fallis on the influence of media by saying “ we citizens ‘cannot acquire, all by ourselves, all of the knowledge that we need to live our lives. We often have to rely on information that we receive from others’” (Chadwick, Stanyer, 2021, p. 1)

A lot of us may think of traditional advertisements or political campaigns when thinking about persuasion. Persuasion is not always as straightforward as that and can sometimes cross the line of manipulation. Incentives, coercion and deception are key aspects of understanding the manipulation.

• Incentives: Incentivization can be defined as an aspect of persuasion that involves promising rewards or benefits. An example of a manipulative incentive would be a political candidate promising tax cuts in order to garner votes from people who may not have initially been voting for them (Bakir et. al, 2018, p. 323). 

• Coercion: This is where OPC becomes the most direct and forceful. It is an act of persuasion that drives someone to act against their will because of a threat, which can even include physical force (Bakir et. al, 2018, p. 324). Coercion is almost always transparent between the parties involved, but extremely exploitative and essentially takes away a person’s choice to act freely (Arango-Kure, Garz, 2025, p. 6). An example of coercion would be an employer threatening to fire their employees if they were to speak out about unfair or unethical working conditions and environments. 

• Deception: Deception is persuasion by lying or distorting the truth. This completely violates the concept of informed consent. People don’t have the correct information in order to make an accurate, informed decision. Deception can come in the form of lying, omission, distortion and misdirection (Bakir et. al, 2018, p. 322). A relevant example of deception is the use of AI to create videos or images that are completely fake in order to spread false information.

When persuasion entails giving us rewards, threatening us, or lying to us, we lose the right to making an informed decision. The idea of individually making a choice gets taken away.

Persuasion and PR: Walking the Manipulative Line

Public relations tends to find themselves right in the middle of the idea of incentives, coercion and deception. Authenticity in PR is essential, especially in terms of connecting the organization to the key publics. Public relations leader Edward L. Bernays actually stated that the purpose of pr was to “engineer consent” and that a good public relations practitioner would be able to shape public opinion in a way to benefit businesses and organizations. Many academics and practioners found this to be manipulative and in turn sparked the search for a way to responsibly and ethically communicate with publics (Shin, Heath, 2020, p.32). The ethical side of public relations is supposed to connect organizations with their key publics through trust, but PR can also have the manipulative tendency to cover up issues or use pressure. 

Informed Consent Is Important!

Democracy is dependent on the public having the ability to make informed decisions. With the constant filtering and deception seen through influencers, social media, PR and advertising, are we truly able to make an informed decision. PR is a tool for influence as much as it is a tool for communication. Unethical use of PR can fuel the publics lack of/skewed information. It is important to identify and understand some of the tactics used in manipulative messaging in order to make informed decisions for ourselves. Understanding the aspects of what can make a message manipulative can be eye-opening in terms of feeling like we are truly, authentically informed. 

Keywords:

Persuasion, Manipulation, Incentives, Coercion, Deception

Resources:

Arango-Kure, M., & Garz, M. (2025). Manipulation: An integrative framework of unethical influence in marketing. Journal of Business Research, 197, 115476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2025.115476

Bakir, V., Herring, E., Miller, D., & Robinson, P. (2018). Organized Persuasive Communication: A new conceptual framework for research on public relations, propaganda and promotional culture. Critical Sociology, 45(3), 311–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920518764586

Chadwick, A., & Stanyer, J. (2021). Deception as a Bridging Concept in the Study of Disinformation, Misinformation, and Misperceptions: Toward a Holistic Framework. Communication Theory, 32(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtab019

Shin, J-H., & Heath, R. L. (2020, December 22). Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies.

In public relations, there can be a crisis or a mega-crisis. There are multiple factors that elevate a crisis to a mega-crisis throughout global PR. A combination of political, social and economic factors work together to determine what can be classified as a mega-crisis (Yen, Salmon, 2017). An example that encapsulates a mega-crisis is the African famine with more than 340 million people suffering from food insecurity and 280 million people suffering from malnourishment across the continent (Luke, 2025). Understanding the aspects of a mega-crisis can lead to successful solutions with long-term results, or at least be a step in the right direction to manage these crises. 

How Do We Determine A Crisis From A Mega-Crisis?

In terms of public relations, a crisis is serious, but can typically be managed by taking fast action. A crisis is a situation that puts the reputation of your organization at risk (O’Connell, 2024). In public relations, a crisis can come in the form of:

• Product recalls 
• Poor media coverage 
• Data breach
• Financial scandal
• Factory or production plant disaster

These are all situations that require immediate action that a crisis plan is typically in place for (O’Connell, 2024). A mega-crisis requires a different, more in-depth approach.  ____ The reason that the African famine fits under mega-crisis so well is because of how complex it is, it’s large scale and how many publics are effected (Yen, Salmon, 2017).  A mega-crisis requires both political and managerial perspectives in order to effectively manage the situation. A mega-crisis creates two things:

• A sense of extreme urgency
• Very deep uncertainty 

These two factors along with the requirement of a managerial and political perspective are heavily responsible for defining a situation as a mega-crisis (Yen, Salmon, 2017) . 

Managerial Perspective vs. Political Perspective: Is This A Quick Fix Or A Deeper Change

When dealing with a mega-crisis, the strategy of how to manage it is essential. The managerial perspective is correlated with the “extreme urgency” aspect. Media pressure usually demands immediate action during a crisis. Looking at the African Famine as an example, the managerial perspective and immediate action typically does not address the deeper-rooted issue of the mega-crisis that results in the lack of long-term change. The managerial perspective will meet the urgent stakeholder needs but fail to result in long-term solutions (Yen, Salmon, 2017). The “deep uncertainty” aspect is met with the political perspective. This perspective is looking beyond the immediate needs and looking toward what can be integrated to make a long-term change that will make a difference. The political perspective is working towards making a deep-rooted change (Yen, Salmon, 2017). 

Managing A Mega-Crisis: Solutions That Can Make An Impact

Knowing the difference between a crisis and a mega-crisis drives how PR professionals respond to a crisis. The managerial perspective may work for a traditional crisis well. Then quick and immediate action to extinguish the fire may be exactly what is necessary for that situation. Simply, a mega-crisis is more messy. A fast fix will not sufficiently solve the problem. They require more involvement from stakeholders, more time, and the idea that a single resolution should NOT be relied on (Yen, Salmon, 2017). From food scarcity across a continent to recalling a faulty product, the main focus is making a change for the future and not just for right now. Thinking bigger is neccessary to properly manage a mega-crisis.

Keywords:

Mega-crisis, Crisis Communication, Managerial Perspective, Political Perspective

Resources:

Luke, D. (2025, March 25). How Africa eats: identifying and stopping the hunger crisis. Lse.ac.uk; LSE Research for the World. https://www.lse.ac.uk/research/research-for-the-world/economics/how-africa-eats

O’Connell, A. (2024). What is Crisis Communication? Definitions & Strategies | Cision. Cision. https://www.cision.com/resources/articles/what-is-crisis-communication-definitions-strategies/

Yen, V. Y.-C., & Salmon, C. T. (2017). Further explication of mega-crisis concept and feasible responses.

Strategic communication is essential in the world of public relations. That being said, public relations still tends to be excluded when organizational decisions are being made. Many practitioners and scholars agree that PR professionals need to play a part in creating organizational policy, instead of only focusing on creating effective messaging (Wilson, 2016b). PR professionals are generally not part of the dominant coalition. The role of a PR practitioner is often underestimated and therefor not taken into account by the dominant coalition, even though public relations expertise is essential in the inner circle (Berger, 2005).

Dominant Coalition’s Influence on Strategic Decision Making in PR

An article by Christopher Wilson titled, How dominant coalition members’ values and perceptions impact their perceptions of public relations participation in organizational decision making, hypothesizez the different factors that influence the involvement of public relations in organizational decision making. These hypotheses include:

• “H1.  The more dominant coalition members value organizational openness to the organization’s environment, the more they will perceive that the organization’s public relations department participates in organizational decision making.”
• “H2. The greater dominant coalition members’ perceptions of organizational autonomy are, the more they will perceive that the public relations department participates in organizational decision making.”
• “H3. Dominant coalition members’ perceptions of the manager role potential of the public relations department will be positively associated with their perceptions of the department’s participation in organizational decision making.”

Essentially, these hypotheses suggest that PR being involved largely has to do with what the people in charge think and value. If the members of the dominant coalition believes that PR can have a strong leadership role, then they are more inclined to give PR a seat at the table. As much as it may seem like an obvious answer, it comes down to what the people in charge think and how they want to utilize public relations. 

Binding Communication and Management for Success

The upper echelons theory is the idea that the values of an organizations top management leaders are reflected in their strategic choices (Wilson,2016a).  The values of the top leaders of an organization are reflected in who makes decisions as well as how they are made. PR professionals need to show that they can do more than just craft effective messaging and master communication, they need to prove that they are capable of working with management positions and working IN management positions. PR professionals can fill roles as technicians or manager and the functions of these roles can often overlap <a href="http://<!– wp:paragraph –> <p>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/org/science/article/abs/pii/S1363254X16000109">upper echelons theory</a> is the idea that the values of an organizations top management leaders are reflected in their strategic choices (Wilson,2016a).  The values of the top leaders of an organization are reflected in who makes decisions as well as how they are made. PR professionals need to show that they can do more than just craft effective messaging and master communication, they need to prove that they are capable of working with management positions and working IN management positions. PR professionals can fill roles as technicians or manager and the functions of these roles can often overlap <a href="https://read.amazon.com/?asin=B08Q3F9CR6&ref_=dbs_t_r_khbodl">(Shin, Heath, 2021, p. 324)</a>. Focusing on on strategic skills such as crisis management and the creation of policies can be the factors that puts PR in a more than a supporting role.</p> (Shin, Heath, 2021, p. 324). Focusing on on strategic skills such as crisis management and the creation of policies can be the factors that puts PR in a more than a supporting role.

Keywords:

Dominant Coalition, Strategic Decision Making, Communication, Management

References:

Berger, B. K. (2005, January). Power Over, Power With, and Power to Relations: Critical Reflections on Public Relations, the Dominant Coalition, and Activism.

Shin, J.-H., & Heath, R. L. (2020, December 22). Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies.

Wilson, C. (2016a). How dominant coalition members’ values and perceptions impact their perceptions of public relations participation in organizational decision making .

Wilson, C. (2016b, August). View from the upper echelon: Examining dominant coalition members’ values and perceptions and the impact of formal environmental scanning.