Ciara Wolfe

Do you ever think that media affects you in a different way than it does everybody else? You’re experiencing the second-person effect. Someone experiencing the second-person effect will respond to the daily news as if everyone else was also paying the same amount of attention to it (Glasser, 2009, p. 326). This blog post will highlight the importance of understanding the concept and why it is important to understand that media shaped our behaviors.

What is the Second-Person Effect: The Psychology of Shared Influenced

 The second-person effect is essentially assuming that everyone processed media in a similar way as you did (Huh et al., 2008, p. 188). It acknowledges that others were affected and so were you. It can even have an affect on social behaviors.

An article titled “Operationalizing the Second-Person Effect and Its Relationship to Behavioral Outcomes of Direct-to-Consumer Advertising” says “…since the second-person effect was grounded in judgements of mutually shared influence, it could increase the possibility of common social interests and subsequent social action” (Huh et al., 2008, p.189).

Basically, when people think that media has an impact on themselves and those around them they are more likely to share that information with their friends or act on it in a certain way that is subtle, but still shows that action has been taken. 

Distinction and Overlap: Second-Person Effect vs. Third-Person Effect

Second-person effect is similar, but not the same, to third-person effect. Third-person effect is the belief that other people are more influenced than you by media. Sometimes people have the tendency to overestimate the influence that media has on other people’s thoughts and behaviors (Chung, Moon, 2016 ,p.314). The second-person effect highlights a shared experience and that we’re all in this together, whereas the third-person effect puts the influence on anyone but yourself. Despite their differences, they do both focus on the perception of media and predict behavior based on how that media is perceived. Second-person focuses on similarity and third-person focuses on differences.

The Bigger Picture of Media Influence

The perception of media and how we view the way it affects us is essential in understanding the public’s behaviors. Understanding the difference between second-person effect and third-person effect can help us predict and understand behaviors, interpretations and actions. The concept of shared influence can truly give is an insight on how media affects us. Media is more than just the message, there is a whole psyschology about perception and shared experiences that come into play. Second-person effect is an essential concept in understanding why people consume media the way that they do and there are many similar concepts that help us deepen that understanding.

Keywords:

Second-person effect, shared influence, psychology, third-person effect

References:

Chung, S., & Moon, S.-I. (2016). Is the Third-Person Effect Real? A Critical Examination of Rationales, Testing Methods, and Previous Findings of the Third-Person Effect on Censorship Attitudes. Human Communication Research, 42(2), 312–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12078

Glasser, T. L. (2009). Journalism and the second-person effect. Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism, 10(3), 326–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884909102592

Huh, J., DeLorme, D. E., & Reid, L. N. (2008). Operationalizing the Second-Person Effect and Its Relationship to Behavioral Outcomes of Direct-to-Consumer Advertising. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(2), 186–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764208321351

Your favorite company is NOT immune to a PR crisis. A threat, unpredictable event or surprise can send an organization into crisis mode (Olsson, 2014, p.114). It could be a boycott, a product recall or the CEO saying something controversial. No matter what type of crisis it is, the brand’s reaction can determine the future of its image. Image is a main concept in the public relations world. Knowing what theories to use and how to prepare and approach a crisis is essential to maintaining and repairing a brand’s image (Benoit, 1997,p.177).

Image Repair and Crisis Communication: Knowing the Best Response

Mid: Every move counts when crisis strikes. Responding too slow can be bad, but so can pushing out the wrong message too fast. Benoit highlights five image restoration strategies in his work for crisis communication. These strategies are:

• Denial: This strategy is simply denying what the individual or organization is being accused of. Another form of denial could be shifting the blame somewhere else as well (Benoit,1997,p.179-180).
• Evasion of Responsibility: There are four different versions of this strategy:
  • Provocation: A response to something else
  • Defeasability: Lack of information
  • Accident: Just like it sounds, an accident
  • Good intentions: Meant well (Benoit, 1997, p.179)
• Reducing Offensiveness: This strategy has six different versions that all aim to reduce how offensive the act is perceived to the public:
  • Bolstering: bringing attention to the organizations good traits
  • Minimization: acting like the offense really wasn’t that serious
  • Differentiation: distinguish the act from other things found offensive
  • Transcendence: trying to make the offense seem like there was a benefit or there was some kind of good to come out of it.
  • Attack Accuser: make the accuser seem less credible 
  • Compensation: reimburse whoever was effected by the crisis (Benoit, 1997, p.180-181)
• Corrective Action: promising to fix the problem and also prevent future problems from happening (Benoit, 1997, p.181)
• Mortification: confess and apologize (Benoit, 1997, p.181)

An example of some of these strategies in use would be how Real Madrid’s president Florentino Perez was caught in an audio leak where he talked poorly about some of the team’s most iconic players and he used transcendence and attacking the accuser to try and extinguish the situation (Koa, 2022). He undermined the credibility of the accuser and used transcendence to view the audio clips in a broader/different context to make them seem less bad (Koa, 2022). Benoit’s work highlights the theory of image repair suggestions for crisis communication. Though his work is from almost 20 years ago it is still widely looked at and used today when considering how to analyze and handle a crisis (Benoit, 1997, p.185).

Don’t Wait Until You’re Already Behind: Preparation and Anticipation

There are many different strategies and typologies when it comes to image repair and crisis communication. Theorists have even developed guidelines that help us know when to use certain strategies for a crisis (Rowland, Jerome, 2004, p.193). One of the most important things to remember though, is the importance of planning ahead in case there is a crisis instead of just dealing with the repercussions after. 

Lessons Learned (Even if it’s the Hard Way)

Issues can be created by what an organization does before, during and after a crisis. Sometimes issues even come from the efforts we put into solving the crisis (Yang,Shen, 2017,p.177). Organizations need to move fast and authentically to best attack crisis communication. Brands that highly value reputation and treat it as a long-term investment are the brands that will have the best chance of surviving a crisis. 

Keywords:

Preparation, anticipation, crisis communication, image repair, response

References:

Benoit, W. L. (1997). Image Repair Discourse and Crisis Communication. Public Relations Review, 23(2), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0363-8111(97)90023-0

Koa, M. (2022). Image Repair Strategies in Public Relations Crisis: A Case Study of Real Madrid’s Response Strategies to the Bernabeu Leaked Audio Scandal. Romanian Journal of Communication and Public Relations, 24(3), 25. https://doi.org/10.21018/rjcpr.2022.3.347

Olsson, E.-K. (2014). Crisis Communication in Public Organisations: Dimensions of Crisis Communication Revisited. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 22(2), 113–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12047

Rowland, R. C., & Jerome, A. M. (2004). On Organizational Apologia: A Reconceptualization. Communication Theory, 14(3), 191–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00311.x

Yang, F., & Shen, F. (2017). Effects of Web Interactivity: A Meta-Analysis. Communication Research, 45(5), 635–658. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217700748

Everyday we are surrounded by tons of information and media. That being said, that doesn’t mean that we are getting a balanced set of views and opinions of what’s going on in the world. There are a lot of factors that go into the information that we consume everyday such as our social communities and personal habits.The concept of exposure diversity looks at the variety of information people are actually consuming (Moe et al., 2020).

Media Exposure is Not Always Equal: Exposure Diversity Explained

Despite people having access to a wide variety of media, not everyone is consuming the same information as each other. Exposure diversity dives into the difference in the media we are consuming as a whole what people are engaging with. Exposure diversity looks at the perspective of the consumer (Moe et al., 2020). It asks the question of whether or not people are being exposed to a variety of information and perspectives instead of only consuming information that contains the same opinions that is from the same sources. People are more likely being exposed to media that aligns with their values opposed to media that does not.

An article titled Partisan Paths to Exposure Diversity: Differences in Pro- and Counterattitudinal News Consumption states, “…the evidence that citizens’ news consumption privileges like-minded views over less consonant content is overwhelming” (Garrett, Stroud, 2014). 

This quote is basically just agreeing with the idea that people are really only consuming news that aligns with what they already believe. 

Behavioral vs. Structural Diversity in Media: Comparing Media Diversity

Media diversity is a concept that is similar to exposure diversity. Exposure diversity is behavioral whereas media diversity is structural. Exposure diversity is in the hands of the consumer. Media diversity is in the hands of the producers. It is the concept that their is ensured accessibility and availability of a wide variety of information and viewpoints that people are able to consume to help form their opinions and inform them (Brogi, 2020, p.1). Exposure diversity focuses on what is ACTUALLY being consumed and media diversity focuses on what COULD be consumed.

What We Learned About Exposure Diversity and Why it Matters

Our media habits are complex and comparing media diversity with exposure diversity exhibits that. It goes further than just having access to different types of media. It is important how people engage with different types of media and what they are exposed to in their daily lives. Exposure diversity emphasizes that media consumers are in charge of the information surrounding them more than they think. As media consumers we need to be mindful about our information consumption habits and make sure we remain intentional and diverse in what we seek out. 

Keywords:

Exposure diversity, exposure, media diversity, behavioral, structural

References:

Brogi, E. (2020). The Media pluralism monitor: Conceptualizing media pluralism for the online environment. El Profesional de La Información, 29(5). https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.sep.29

Garrett, R. K., & Stroud, N. J. (2014). Partisan Paths to Exposure Diversity: Differences in Pro- and Counterattitudinal News Consumption. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 680–701. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12105

Moe, H., Hovden, J. F., & Karppinen, K. (2020). Operationalizing exposure diversity. European Journal of Communication, 36(2), 148–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323120966849

In the last 10-15 years, there has been an increase in executive leaders of major organizations taking a public stance on social and political issues (Dodd, Supa, 2014, p. 1). Depending on how the company approaches taking their stance can also determine if the public perceives their efforts as authentic. There is a lot of strategy that is required for effective corporate social advocacy (CSA) and different aspects organizations need to take into account before starting a conversation.

The Basics of Corporate Social Advocacy: When Companies Speak Up and Out

An article written by Melissa Dodd and Dustin Supa states, “Public declarations surrounding social-political issues may be proactive organizational initiatives with planned communication or unintentionally spoken by organizational leadership, prompting reactive communication” (Dodd, Supa, 2014, p. 2).

Whichever the scenario is, consumers know that this organization holds a specific set of values. Some examples that are most well-known include…

• The Nationals Rifle Association making a public list of celebrities and organizations that support gun control such as Ben & Jerry’s.
• Chick-fil-A publicly opposing gay marriage.
• Starbucks and Amazon publicly supporting gay marriage.
• Papa John’s and Applebee’s reputation impacted after executives made remarks that opposed Obamacare. 

Regardless if the outcome was negative or positive, these organizations still made the choice to take their stance and show that is how their views aligned (Dodd, Supa, 2014, p. 1-2). CSA can also be presented in a variety of ways. 

An article titled Should Businesses Take a Stand? Effects of Percieved Psychological Distance on Consumers’ Expectation and Evaluation of Corporate Social Advocays says, “CSA can include corporate communications such as formal corporate statements released either internally or externally, interviews or unscripted statements by business leaders, and cause-related advertising, as well as corporate actions such as publicized operation decisions or donations to advocacy organizations with clear affiliations on certain issues” (Xu, et al., 2022, p.840-841).

Making these stances can either hurt the company, or help them. The opinions and stances that advance society can also take organizations to the next level (Yang, Shen, 2017, p.145). It takes strategy and authenticity for these stances to benefit an organization the way they intend.

Risk and Reward: Things Can Get Complicated

Taking a definitive stance as an organization can garner support, but depending on the stance, it can create complete detachment from stakeholders. When a company confirms that it shares similar values to a consumer, they can also create emotional attachment and increased brand trust (Park, 2022, p. 822). Organizations that have controversial stances on issues and still choose to make a public statement put themselves at risk. Consumers are more likely to create and maintain relationships with organizations that have an authentic commitment to building a better society (Park, 2022, p.823).

Speak Up (But With Intention!)

Silence isn’t the safe play in this day and age. Organizations need to work to find the sweet spot between supporting their values and protecting their relationships with their stakeholders. Authenticity is the key to effective CSA. When done correctly an organization can build loyalty, but done wrong can cause intense backlash and repercussions.

Keywords:

Corporate social advocacy, risk, reward, complicated/complication, intention

References:

Dodd, Melissa D., and Dustin W. Supa. “Conceptualizing and Measuring “Corporate Social Advocacy” Communication: Examining the Impact on Corporate Financial Performance.” Public Relations Journal, vol. 8, no. 3, 2014.

Park, Keonyoung. “The Mediating Role of Skepticism: How Corporate Social Advocacy Builds Quality Relationships with Publics.” Journal of Marketing Communications, 22 Aug. 2021, pp. 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2021.1964580.

Xu, Hao, et al. “Should Businesses Take a Stand? Effects of Perceived Psychological Distance on Consumers’ Expectation and Evaluation of Corporate Social Advocacy.” Journal of Marketing Communications, vol. 28, no. 8, 2022.

Yang, F., & Shen, F. (2017). Effects of Web Interactivity: A Meta-Analysis. Communication Research, 45(5), 635–658. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217700748

In recent years, it seems like the politics we see in the news are almost always negative. There has not been a lot of positivity in politics recently, and this is largely due to not only the status of the country right now, but also how the news is being framed. The concept of negativity in political news has resulted in studies having a wide variety of results and conclusions about its significance. Some studies believe that confrontational news is important and can encourage healthy skepticism, whereas others believe that negativity in political news can lead to politicians and institutions being deemed untrustworthy (Lengauer, et al., 2011, p.180).

Understanding Negative Media: How is This Influencing Opinion?

Negative news seems to be overshadowing positive news in the last few years. There are certain well-known phrases such as “No news is good news” and “If it bleeds, it leads” that act as proof that negativity has dominated news for a while (Soroka, McAdams, 2012, p. 1). Stories have the tendency to focus on what’s wrong in the world, and not what is right, especially in politics. There has been an intensification in the focus on negative news throughout recent decades and scholars are looking for a reason why (Lengauer, et al., 2011, p. 181). 

• “ …it is argued that increased levels of education among journalists,… a general shift toward post-materialist attitudes,… and key events like Watergate, Vietnam and the 1968 protest movements contributed to a change in journalists’ worldviews where negativity shifted from a mere ‘news value’ to an over-arching ‘news ideology’” (Lengauer, et al., 2011, p.181).

Basically, the increase of negative news can be attributed to the evolution of journalists education and what has happened in the world. When the public is only seeing negative headlines about politics, it becomes exhausting and creates disengagement and can even lead media consumers to not trust the politicians, news outlets and jorunalists. 

The Similarity of Bias: How Both Concepts Affect Public Perception

Bias is a term that regularly gets confused with negativity. Bias isn’t just showing the negativity in news, it is the manipulation and certain rhetoric that journalists or news outlets use that favor one side ( de Arruda, et al., 2020, p. 176). If a news outlet is consistently praising one candidate in the presidential election and scrutinizing the other, that is an example of bias. The difference between bias and negativity is that negativity can make everyone look bad. No one specifically has to be the target in a negative story, it can be everyone involved whether its covering a scandal or just pessimism towards the government. It doesn’t always have to have a specific target.

Understanding the Difference: The Best Way to Consume News

Understanding the difference between bias and negativity can make us better news consumers. Negative news is common and it is everywhere. It can make the state of the world, country and politics feel exhausting. That being said, it is still important to consume and understand this news because it keeps us informed and can create awareness. We need to stay aware of bias because it can quietly shape our opinions without us noticing. It is important for us to recognize when a news story, journalist or outlet is biased so we know the story may not be 100% accurate. Being able to recognize the use of both makes us informed news consumers and allows us to consume media without being misled.

Keywords:

Bias, negativity, influence/influencing, public perception

References:

Arruda, Gabriel De, et al. “Analysing Bias in Political News.” JUCS – Journal of Universal Computer Science, vol. 26, no. 2, 28 Feb. 2020, pp. 173–199, lib.jucs.org/article/23996/, https://doi.org/10.3897/jucs.2020.011.

Lengauer, Günther, et al. “Negativity in Political News: A Review of Concepts, Operationalizations and Key Findings.” Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism, vol. 13, no. 2, 22 Nov. 2011, pp. 179–202, https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884911427800.

Soroka, Stuart N., and Stephen McAdams. “News, Politics, and Negativity.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2012, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2075941.

Presenting a bunch of facts in a press release does not make it very memorable for the reader. It is important for PR professionals to be able to tell a story through their message. Creating an emotional response is one of the best ways for a message to stick. The amount of content we see in a day can be overwhelming to think about, and it’s important for a message or campaign to truly stand out in the midst of all the information that we consume on a daily basis.

The Strategy of a Story: Making Memorable Messaging

Humans have used the art of storytelling throughout history. From the ancient Greeks and Romans, all the way to us, storytelling has been crucial to how humans perceive and share information (Kent, 2015, p. 481). The compelling nature of storytelling makes it effective to society as a whole. It can create shared experiences and create an emotional response (Kent, 2015, p. 481). The idea of storytelling is not a new concept, nor does it have a lack of research.

The article “The power of storytelling in public relations: Introducing the 20 master plots” states that, “ A Google phrase search for ‘storytelling and ‘public relations’” returns 1.5 million results” (Kent, 2015, p. 481).

Storytelling can be utilized in many different contexts to help information or news resonate with various audiences. For example, an article by Minh Tung Tran elaborates on how storytelling can be used to draw attention to and engage audiences in incidents that are related to the climate and environment (Tran, 2025, p. 1). Taking advantage of how influential good storytelling can be should not only be essential to PR professionals, but to other fields that want awareness for specific issues as well.

The Rhetoric and Storytelling Combo: The Trick to Make a Message Stick

Humans have always found a way to communicate with each other. The concepts of rhetoric and storytelling go hand-in-hand. The concept of rhetoric is a well-established technique which also comes from Ancient Greek and Roman traditions (Indraccolo, 2014, p. 333) .Rhetoric is essential for communication and forming the necessary relationships required for society and community (Shin, Heath, 2020, p.115). These concepts used correctly, and together, can create effective PR messaging that sticks and stands out.

Craft a Lasting Message

There is no shortage of professionals in the field of public relations. This means that PR professionals need to stand out and impress organizations and clients with their ability to utilize everyday storytelling and professional rhetoric (Kantola, 2016). People are going to remember the stories and messages they see where they feel an emotional connection, not something with no depth. Understanding how to make a narrative work in your favor from storytelling is a non-negotiable for setting a PR professional apart from the rest.

Keywords:

Storytelling, rhetoric, strategy, messaging

Resources:

Indraccolo, L. (2014). What is “rhetoric” anyway? Briared in words in Early China. Asiatische Studien – Études Asiatiques, 68(1), 331–341. https://doi.org/10.1515/asia-2014-0019

Kantola, A. (2016). Cleaning rotten politics, selling exclusive liaisons: Public relations consultants as storytelling professionals between markets and politics. Public Relations Inquiry, 5(1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/2046147×15625713

Kent, M. L. (2015). The Power of Storytelling in Public relations: Introducing the 20 Master Plots. Public Relations Review, 41(4), 480–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2015.05.011

Shin, J-H., & Heath, R. L. (2020, December 22). Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies.

Tran, M. T. (2025). Harnessing the power of storytelling in public Relations: Mobilizing public action against climate change. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 12, 101825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101825

In today’s world, it is almost impossible to go an entire day, or even half a day, without using some sort of technology. That might sound sad but it is our harsh reality. Interactivity and interactive features are more relevant than ever. 

An article titled “Effects of Web Interactivity: A Meta-Analysis” states “ The use of interactive features on website interfaces has significantly expanded the reach and strength of computer-mediated messages. A message on an interactive website can be drastically different from a print message…” (Yang, Shen, 2017).

Being able to understand the impact of interactivity can help PR professionals understand why some media is easier to connect with which in turn allows the professionals to create media that has this effect. 

What is Interactivity? Technology + Human Communication

Interactivity is a concept that is more relevant in the newer generations due to technological advancements that have made the internet and technology in general more accessible. Interactivity can be rooted in a mediums ability to create interactions and generate conversation or even engagement (Kiousis, 2002, p. 356). The concept of interactivity is also studied in a number of different contexts. For example, a study in an article titled “Brand value Co-creation in social commerce: The role of interactivity, social support, and relationship quality” puts a focus on how interactivity is an important aspect of social commerce (Tajvidi et al., 2017, p.3). This specific study investigates how consumers engage in social shopping and then share information with eachother to create a sort of social networking environment (Tajvidi et al., 2017, p. 3). Outside of that context, a more relevant example that would resonate with the current generation would be playing a video game with other players or interacting with comments on different social media platforms.

Engagement and Interactivity: Similar, but Different

 Although similar, interactivity and engagement are not the same. They both have to do with consumers of media interacting and engaging with media in a significant way. There is a distinction between the two. Engagement puts more of a focus on the involvement a person feels with a certain concept. Whether that is social media, school or work, engagement is more about the connection you feel to something. Engagement can be anything from your willingness to do well in school to wanting to make a favorable impression at work (Hollebeek, 2011,p. 557). An example to understand engagement easily would be thinking about how you can watch your favorite movie over and over again but you don’t necessarily interact with it. Interactivity is more of a two-way street. Communication between the audience and the message can go back and forth instead of only observing (Kiousis, 2002, p. 359). While the concepts both deal with involvement, interactivity is about the potential for communication and engagement is about the feelings and perception a person has with a message.

The Power of Interactivity

Interactivity truly is how technology and humans connect. While similar to engagement, interactivity focuses more on the exchanges we have with media. PR professionals being able to use interactivity to their advantage can be a huge tool and a huge factor that determines whether a not a message is successful or not.

Keywords:

Interactivity, engagement, technology, communication

References:

Hollebeek, L. (2011). Exploring customer brand engagement: definition and themes. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 19(7), 555–573. https://doi.org/10.1080/0965254x.2011.599493

Kiousis, S. (2002). Interactivity: a concept explication. New Media & Society, 4(3), 355–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/146144480200400303

Tajvidi, M., Wang, Y., Hajli, N., & Love, P. E. D. (2017). Brand value Co-creation in social commerce: The role of interactivity, social support, and relationship quality. Computers in Human Behavior, 115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.006

Yang, F., & Shen, F. (2017). Effects of Web Interactivity: A Meta-Analysis. Communication Research, 45(5), 635–658. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217700748

A lot of people view public relations as a never ending cycle of cleaning up messes. In reality, a lot of good PR is about the art of predicting instead of reacting. Reacting efficiently to a crisis is still essential, but the act of predicting is essential too.  This is where issues management comes into play. Issues management identifies emerging trends and potential issues that can possibly affect an organization in the future. Being able to identify these factors and create organizational responses in advance is hugely successful for a lot of companies (Gaunt, Ollenburger, 1995, p. 201).  Strategy is more important than panic. Some of the best PR is the PR that happens behind the scenes.

What is Issues Management, Because it is Not Crisis Management!

Issues management is synonymous with crisis management. There is an important distinction between the two. Issues management is the work that goes into preventing the crisis in the first place and identifying what may present itself as a problem, and crisis management is the work that goes into the actual management of the crisis. Crisis management is post-crisis and issues management is pre-crisis (Gaunt, Ollenburger, 1995, p. 202).  The term “issues management” itself was created by Howard Chase and Barrie Jones in 1977. It was created after businesses were facing constant backlash from the public because they weren’t becoming aware of problems until it was much too late. 

They stated that their crisis model combined “ a management philosophy with an ongoing systems process to help executives identify, analyze and manage public policy issues in a populist society experiencing discontinuous change” (Ramsey, 1993, p. 262). 

Chase created an Issue Management Process Model to identify, protect and have a better control on external factors to maintain performance of the corporate system (Aronczyk, 2018, p. 837). Once again, the purpose of the model was to prevent a crisis before it even started. Today’s media cycle is fast and constant which requires PR professionals and teams to stay on top of policy changes, public opinion and trends.

Contingency Theory + Issues Management = The Cheat Code for Successful PR Professionals

Even though a lot of the research and models developed for this concept came over 20 years ago, this is still an extremely relevant topic of conversation. Issues management is extra important in today’s climate because of the use of social media and how quick news can spread in the blink of an eye. Issues management plays with contingency theory pretty closely in terms of how PR professionals look at a crisis. Contingency theory is the practice of choosing what is best for the company while also making sure to follow strategies that rely on what the specific situation is (Shin, Heath, 2020, p. 83). Companies that use contingency theory and issues management correctly enable themselves to formulate the best preventative plans for multiple different versions of crises.

Don’t Wait Until it’s Too Late

Issues management is an essential, strategic tool that is practiced to save organizations from potential crises. PR professionals need to know that they can’t wait for the crisis to come to them, they have to always take the lead and have the upper hand on a potential crisis. PR is a lot deeper than just messaging.  Issues management is not something that is optional for a company. It is absolutely essential so that crises can turn into opportunities.

Keywords:

Issues management, crisis management, contingency theory, public relations professionals

References

Aronczyk, M. (2018). Public Relations, Issue Management, and the Transformation of American Environmentalism, 1948–1992. Enterprise & Society, 19(4), 836–863. https://doi.org/10.1017/eso.2017.69

Gaunt, P., & Ollenburger, J. (1995). Issues management revisited: A tool that deserves another look. Public Relations Review, 21(3), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/0363-8111(95)90021-7

Ramsey, S. A. (1993). Issues management and the use of technologies in public relations. Public Relations Review, 19(3), 261–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/0363-8111(93)90046-f

Shin, J-H., Heath & R.L. (2020, December 22). Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies.

What is news literacy? News literacy goes far beyond just being able to sniff out fake news. It is a concept that has been studied for many years and continues to develop due to social media and technology constantly evolving.

The authors of the article “Defining and Conceptualizing News Literacy” state, “ we define news literacy as knowledge of the personal and social processes by which news is produced, distributed, and consumed, and skills that allow users some control over these processes” (Tully et al, 2021).

Simply put, news literacy is knowing how news is created, how it’s shared and how it’s processed by the audience, while also having the ability to use it yourself. This is where the 5 Cs of news literacy come in handy.

The 5 Cs of News Literacy: What Are They?

To help best define and understand news literacy, it is helpful to know the 5 Cs of news literacy.

• Context: Context is the behind-the-scenes factors that shape the news. This includes the social and economic environments, as well as laws in the place where the news is coming from (Tully et al, 2021).

• Creation: Creation is how the news is actually made. How was the news conceived and reported? This doesn’t just cover journalists; it also covers influencers, bloggers and AI generated news. What are the values of the person who created and obtained this news? This also includes the background and social views of however created this news (Tully et al, 2021).

• Content: Content is what sets apart this piece of news from other media content. What are the characteristics that make it news worthy? Understanding the importance of content and how it is different from other media is essential in defining news literacy. We want to look at if the sources of the news are credible and if the evidence included can be deemed reliable (Tully et al, 2021).

• Circultion: How did this news get to you? A person’s personal bias can determine how quickly  news reaches them, or even what kind of news reaches them. People identify with news that matches their personal values more than news that doesn’t, therefore people will seek a specific type of news out because they deem it more trustworthy. Your algorithm and social media can also play a part in what news is circulated to you (Tully et al, 2021). 

• Consumption: Consumption is the act of how we digest news. This includes what news we pay attention to and how we perceive it. Personal bias is huge here. Everything from political views to where you live can affect how credible we find news, how we interpret it, and if we even see it. It is important to be aware of these biases in order to educate ourselves and have well-rounded opinions on topics in the news, without judging too quick due to personal beliefs (Tully et al, 2021). 

Differentiating News Literacy and Media Literacy

News literacy and media literacy are similar, but not exactly the same. Where news literacy is focused on our digestion of news specifically (typically current events and politics), media literacy is more general. Media literacy is how we process all different kinds of media. Similar to news literacy, media literacy also shares the same ideolgy of being able to make your own informed decision about the media you have consumed. Whether that is a commercial, a movie or a social media advertisement, media literacy shares the common goal of individuals being able to question and appreciate what they are seeing (Jones-Jang et al, 2021). Both literacies put an emphasis on individuals being able to have the skills to interpret and assess the specific information being shared with us. 

Identifying Misinformation and Honing Your News Literacy Skills

While media literacy is important, news literacy is absolutely essential in this day and age. The younger generation is exhibiting a rising level of dependence on social media for news. That being said, news literacy levels are also increasing (Swart, 2023).  It’s important for anyone who consumes media to be news literate and understand the 5 C’s. This is crucial to having a society where everyone is able to make their own educated, informed opinions. No one wants to fall victim to fake news or the spread of misinformation, so it is up to us to understand exactly what to look for and even our own personal biases.

Keywords:

News literacy, misinformation, the 5 Cs of news literacy, media literacy

References:

Jones-Jang, S. M., Mortensen, T., & Liu, J. (2019). Does Media Literacy Help Identification of Fake News? Information Literacy Helps, but Other Literacies Don’t. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219869406

Swart, J. (2021). Tactics of news literacy: How young people access, evaluate, and engage with news on social media. New Media & Society, 25(3), 505–521. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211011447

Tully, M., Maksl, A., Ashley, S., Vraga, E. K., & Craft, S. (2021). Defining and conceptualizing news literacy. Journalism, 23(8), 146488492110058. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849211005888

The Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS) was created to dive deeper into the principles of the Situational Theory of Publics (STP). There are four main independent variables included in STOPS. They are: problem recognition, involvement recognition, constraint recognition, and reference criterion (Xuemei, et al, 2024). STOPS examines an individual’s situational motivation to acknowledge and tackle a problem. Organizations are able to communicate with their key publics better by understanding and utilizing STOPS.

The Importance of the Publics: Why is Strategic Communication So Essential?

STOPS views the publics differently from other theories. STOPS uses segmentation to analyze what situational factors were motivating people to act in favor of an organization or against them. It analyzes why people choose to be active in certain situations compared to others. If organizations have a grasp on understanding their publics from the perspective that STOPS provides, they can more accurately communicate and build relationships with the publics (Tam et al, 2022). A lot of James Grunig’s work that birthed excellence theory led to the development and understanding of the situational theory of problem solving.

The textbook “ Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies” states, “That research led him (Grunig) to consider how institutions and any public can work together (collaborate) to solve problems, including the factors that hinder and facilitate cooperation. Such challenges led conceptually to the situational theory of publics and eventually to the situational theory of problem solving” (Shin, Heath, 2020, p.57).

An organization can produce a carefully crafted message, but if they don’t understand how to get their publics involved with the information, then they won’t be able to build those authentic relationships between each other. STOPS has even been explored in a way that allows proper segmentation to solve crisis-related communication problems and work collaboratively with other theories (Chon, et al, 2023).

Public Relations + STOPS: It Starts On The Inside

It is easy for the internal dynamic of a public relations workplace to be overshadowed. The internal audience of an organization is equally as important as the outside. Employees serve as extremely powerful messengers and can guide how the public views an organization. STOPS explores the necessity of understanding stakeholders in a way that crafts the message to get a predicted reaction. It also can explain the “why” of how certain information and messages are created or chosen to be shared (Chon, et al, 2023). Employees have the power to be vital advocates for an organization by their carefully crafted messaging. A healthy environment for employees will almost always be reflected in their messaging and the work they do to represent the organization.

Ultimately, STOPS acts as a reminder that public relations is about more than just perception of the external publics. The people inside the organization are just as important, and their ability to think a few steps ahead is crucial.

Keywords:

Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS), Publics, Public Relations, Strategic Communication

References:

Chon, M.-G.,Tam, L., Lee, H. & Kim, J.-N. (2023). Situational theory of problem solving (STOPS): A foundational theory of publics and its behavioral nature in problem solving. In E. Sommerfeldt & C. Botan (Eds), Public relations theory III (pp. 58-76). Routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781003141396-6

Shin, J-H., & Heath, R. L. (2020, December 22). Public Relations Theory: Capabilities and Competencies.

Tam, L., Kim, J.-N. & Lee, H. (2022). The Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS): past, present and future. In D. Pompper, K. Place & C. K. Weaver (Eds.), Routledge companion to public relations (pp. 115-124). Routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781003131700-11

Xuemei, C., Binti Hashim, N., & Binti Kamarudin, S. (2024). Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS): A Foundational Theory of Publics and It’s Application in an Eastern Cultural Context. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 14(4). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v14-i4/21064